Typical Roman names had three parts (known as the tria nomina): the praenomen (“given name”) the nomen (“clan name”) and the cognomen (“family name”). In rare circumstances, an agnomen, or "honorific name," could be added, creating a name with four distinct parts to it. For example, Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus was the general who defeated Hannibal during the Second Punic War. He was awarded the agnomen “Africanus” (“conqueror of Africa”) to commemorate this feat.
1. The Praenomen (“Given Name”)
The praenomen, the first part of a Roman name, is a given name that distinguishes one individual of a family from another. Because there were so few praenomina, these names were relatively unimportant and rarely used on their own outside the family. Usually, only family members and close friends called each other by their praenomen. It was therefore necessary to use other names to differentiate between individuals.
From most common to least common, the standard praenomina were Caeso, Gaius, Lucius, Marcus, Publius, Quintus, Titus, Tiberius, Sextus, Aulus, Decimus, Gnaeus, Spurius, Manius, Servius, Appius, Numerius, and Vibius. These eighteen praenomina account for 99% of all Roman names.
Each praenomina has a standard abbreviation unique to that praenomen. In many cases, it is the first letter, but not always. For instance, the praenomen Gaius is abbreviated as C.
2. The Nomen (“Gens or Clan Name”)
The second part of a Roman name, the nomen, indicates which gens an individual belongs to. A gens is essentially a clan, a loose collection of families sharing the same nomen. Clans were of great importance in the Roman world, as they helped create familia and political alliances (amicitia). Furthermore, Romans were very proud of the clans they came from and celebrated clan achievements.
There were almost 500 clans in ancient Rome. The original gentes traced their lineage to the family groups that first settled Rome. Others were named from Etruscan families and others descended from specific geographic areas.
3. The Cognomen (“Family Name”)
The third name, the cognomen, was similar to what would be considered a nickname today, except that it was still part of a Roman’s legal title. Cognomina served to distinguish individuals within a gens, and they were often chosen based on a distinct physical or personality trait. Often times, these names were insulting rather than complimentary. Some names had no cognomen, while others had two.
There were several types of cognomina:
- Occupational cognomina referred to the Roman’s job or occupation (ie. Caepio was an onion-seller)
- Geographical cognomina referred to the place a Roman came from and could originate from a city, a region, or a tribe (ie. Campanus means “man from Campania”)
- Adoptive cognomina were a second cognomen formed from an adopted Roman’s old nomen, with the –ius ending changed to –ianus, and added to the end of his name to indicate his former identity. (ie. When Gaius Octavian Thurinus was adopted by Julius Caesar, his name became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus). Adoptive cognomina are also sometimes grouped in with agnomina.
4. The Agnomen (“Honorific Name”)
In rare cases, some very prominent Romans were given an additional name. They could not choose these names; agnomina were awarded to them, usually in recognition of their great achievements.
Roman Women’s Names
Names of Roman women did not follow the tripartite system that male names did. Instead, women had only the feminine version of her gens (for example, Publia, Julia, or Cornelia), and these names did not change after marriage. The woman retained the identity of her father. Because many women within the same family often shared the same name, they were sometimes referred to as “the Elder” or “the Younger” in order to better distinguish them.
Slave Names
Like women, slave names were not the same as names of Roman citizens. They often had short one-word names. Some slaves were able to keep part of their original names, while others had new names assigned to them by their masters.
Freedmen’s Names
A freedman took the praenomen and nomen of his former master, and his slave name became his cognomen. For instance, according to an inscription from the first century BCE, a man named Publius Larcius freed a male slave named Nicia, whose name then became Publius Larcius Nicia.
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