In his Natural History, Pliny the Elder states that “there is no one who is not afraid of spells”. This proves true for any era in human history. The fear of the unknown and that which we cannot control are the universally accepted explanations for such things as the supernatural. For many, however, it is the fear of having one’s power outdone and not understanding how to reclaim it. This was especially true for the people of ancient Rome.
Religion and magic are closely connected and in some places interwoven. Magic, in this sense, is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as “the power of apparently influencing events by using mysterious or supernatural forces through the employment of incantation or various other techniques.” In modern day religion, the practice of calling on the aid of a higher power through prayer is derived from ancient uses of incantations in times of difficulty.
In ancient Rome, a certain amount of magic was openly acknowledged in the state religion. Rome’s success as an imperial power was accredited to this combination. However, as this religion was funded by the state it therefore belonged to and was organised by it. Rome, and hence the religion, was run by the wealthy upper class who had spent many generations ensuring that it would always be so. Religion was law and vice-versa. Any new religion, cult or group claiming to possess magical powers threatened the state religion and therefore the patrician class’ absolute authority over the city.
The Early Witches
In the minds of these roman men, the greatest threat came from the oppressed and already resentful members of society; slaves, freed-persons, and common women. Violence, these social groups knew, would not work on a military power such as Rome and so a group sense of self-preservation discouraged a traditional uprising. Revolting through religion and especially magic was a subtler and, to begin with, a safer way to go.
A woman in a position of dominance was already a sickening notion to roman men, so the idea that it might be possible for a woman to defeat a man physically or through use of mystical powers terrified them. Although male ‘wizards’ existed, women with ideas above their station were seen as the real problem. The now stereotypical image was encouraged by these men and before long many hook-nosed crones were being stoned to death by mobs in the street after having allegedly used the marrow from children’s bones for potions.
These ancient witches supposedly had powers much like our modern imaginings do, indeed they were probably the source of the information passed through the centuries. Aside from concocting evil poisons, witches were believed to be able to summon the dead, influence the elements, the weather and even to move the stars and the moon through enchantments. Some witches possessed the ability to shape-shift, most commonly into a screech owl. These witches were called Strigae (sing. Strix).
Persecution
Romans began burning witches at the stake long before Christians got around to it, many of the inquisitorial techniques and myths surrounding witches were revived for the Renaissance persecutions throughout Europe, the only difference being that roman witchcraft did not involved the devil. While attempting to wipe out witches and prophets, the roman rulers saw the opportunity for dealing with other unwanted religions, such as the worship of Bacchus and Isis, and therefore claimed magic and the new religions were one and the same, and should both be stopped. In this way popular religion was, for the most part, successfully suppressed by the elite.
Magic in Politics
In Imperial Rome the threat of the use of magic to overthrow an emperor was taken seriously. Out of this fear, Nero was known to persecute men of intellect and magicians. Use of magic in this way was punishable by death either by crucifixion or by exposure to animals in the arena. Punishments did, of course, vary depending on birth, wealth and political influence. Members of the upper class would have been simply exiled or fined heavily for turning to magic in an attempt to succeed politically.
Everyday Magic
Despite this fear in the upper classes, those occupying the lower were considerably more open minded and many, especially women, called on ‘street witches’ and soothsayers for healing and love potions. These witches and their clients were dismissed by the men writing about them, the only sources we have, after all, as old women suffering from superstition. Tame magic of this sort, such as healing or enticing crops to grow, was only frowned upon by the state and were consequently practised quite often in private. Love potions were very popular and jealous wives and lonely women frequently consulted witches for solutions.
Women who fell pregnant yet did not wish to have the child were forbidden from having it aborted and a husband could kill his wife for having his right to be a father taken from him. On the flip side, a husband could demand that his wife have an abortion should he not want the child. Midwives, wisewomen, female physicians, herbalists and abortionists were all seen in the same light as witches and their work deemed suspicious. They were seen to be the evil ones who used magic to kill the unborn yet for a man to order the death of a child was deemed acceptable.
Sources:
Cato the Elder, On Agriculture
Ovid, A Roman Calendar of Festivals
Pliny the Elder, Natural History
Dashu, M., Roman Persecution, The Suppressed Histories Archives, 2000.
Further Reading:
Ogden, D., Magic, Witchcraft and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds
