Polybius on Democracy in the Roman Constitution

Greek Historian Described the Political Structure of Republican Rome

Aug 28, 2009 Luke Arnott

Polybius thought that the Roman Republic balanced the virtues of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy in its constitution. But his idea of democracy differs from today's.

Polybius, the Greek historian living in second-century BC Rome, provides a contemporary perspective of the political structure of the Roman Republic in the Histories. According to him, Rome’s was a “mixed” constitution, incorporating the best of various forms of government.

Modern historians have tried to debunk Polybius, or at least qualify his arguments. But if Polybius' interpretation of the different kinds of government is well understood, it becomes hard to disagree with the historian's general theory.

What Polybius Meant by a Mixed Constitution

Underlying Polybius' Histories is the idea of the cyclical nature of constitutions. Following Plato and Aristotle, Polybius believed that a state's government, if left alone from outside influences, will gradually change from monarchy, to aristocracy, to democracy, and back to monarchy again.

The concept of a mixed constitution, incorporating the best of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, was devised to break that cycle. For Polybius, a state with a mixed constitution would grant power to a single man, to a group of elites, and to the rest of the people simultaneously. Polybius felt that only Rome's Republic had achieved a form of this ideal.

The Problem of Democracy in the Ancient World

What Polybius and his contemporaries considered “democratic” is rather different from modern definitions. Historians have pointed out that democracy in ancient Rome was limited to voting in popular assemblies. Most citizens had no direct say in public affairs.

J. A. North concludes from this that “the popular will of the Roman people found expression in the context, and only in the context, of divisions within the oligarchy.” (18) Certainly, this is “undemocratic” by modern standards, where not even a united upper class is ostensibly able to circumvent the wishes of a popular majority.

Fergus Millar, on the other hand, does point out many ways in which the Roman system depended on popular consent, stressing especially the role of rhetoric in influencing public opinion. But Millar still argues that the republic was not particularly democratic, not even by Polybius’ standard. (19)

Furthermore, the democracies of the ancient world (most notably, that of Athens) excluded a great majority of the population – women, slaves and foreigners – from the franchise. Rome’s greater willingness to extend citizenship to neighboring towns and peoples was, in this context, quite progressive.

How Polybius Defined Democracy in Ancient Rome

But Polybius himself is somewhat vague as to what constitutes a democratic element in a state. He writes in his Histories that

"the name of democracy cannot be allowed to a state in which the masses have authority to do whatever they happen to wish or intend. But where it is traditional and ingrained to worship the gods, honor one’s parents, respect one’s elders, and obey the laws – in such states, provided the will of the majority is supreme, the name democracy is appropriate." (6.4)

For Polybius, then, a good democracy must have a responsible populace that acts in the best interest of the state. A good monarchy must also be consensual and “ruled by good judgment.” A good aristocracy must be composed of the “fairest and wisest men, chosen by a process of selection.” (6.4)

Rome Had a Mixed Constitution by Polybius' Standard

When the criteria of his political theory are judged by the standards of his time, Polybius' arguments about the virtues of the Roman republic seem valid. Though modern ideas of democracy differ, there is enough of it, by the ancients' definition, in the political framework of second-century Rome to call the Roman constitution a mixed constitution. How it functioned in practice, however, is another matter.

Sources:

Polybius. The Histories. Translated by Mortimer Chambers. Twayne Publishers, 1966.

J. A. North. ”Democratic Politics in Republican Rome.” Past and Present 126 (1990).

Fergus Millar. “The Political Character of the Classical Roman Republic, 200-151 BC.” Journal of Roman Studies 74 (1984).

The copyright of the article Polybius on Democracy in the Roman Constitution in Ancient History is owned by Luke Arnott. Permission to republish Polybius on Democracy in the Roman Constitution in print or online must be granted by the author in writing.

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