Jugurtha and his Bribery of Rome
An Example of Political Corruption and Greed in Republican Rome
Jun 19, 2009 Claudia J. Beresford
The Jugurthine War happened to occur at the time of various Roman socialist movements in which it ended up playing a part. The Republican government was rich, elitist and corrupt; qualities King Jugurtha of Numidia found extremely advantageous. Having been advised that money would buy anything in Rome, Jugurtha proceeded to use this information to further his own aims and, perhaps inadvertently, become a major thorn in the Republican senate’s side.
By the late second century BC, Rome had become extremely wealthy. The empire was expanding, trade with other states was flourishing and the booty from defeated enemies was flowing steadily into the city. This prosperity, however, was only shared among the few; the lower orders received very little.
The increase in external power had caused a consequent rise in the competition for political prowess. Contest between politicians was fierce and the empire had boosted the number of positions available. Buying votes and even military advancement was therefore not unexpected. It was also common for the nobility to accept bribes from the outside; from half-hearted enemies hoping to avoid a battle or from provinces requesting the Roman army not to camp on their land.
The Sources
The sources are on the whole supportive of the corrupt image that is political life in Republican Rome. Both Cato and Gaius Gracchus appear to take it as a given in their references to the subject and Cicero highlights this nature of Roman politics definitively in his account of the Gaius Verres case in which he was prosecutor. Polybius, ever the idealist, gives a more trusting opinion of the Roman nobility, although later in his life he does carefully concede that the system is less than honest. His writings may have been affected by his imprisonment within Rome. Writings available make it clear that in Rome little happened without money.
Jugurtha's Rise
Jugurtha’s success at evading legal retribution came from his contacts within the Roman nobility and his understanding of Rome’s weakness for bribes. Raised by his uncle Micipsa, a joint regent of Numidia, Jugurtha proved more compelling and popular among citizens than his ‘brothers’, Hiempsal and Adherbal. Therefore, in 134 BC, he was sent to the war in Numantia, Spain, to assist Roman consul Scipio Africanus the Younger and during that time made several close Roman contacts. When Micipsa died in 118, the kingdom was shared between Jugurtha and his brothers.
Before long, Jugurtha had had Hiempsal killed and had attacked Adhesbal to claim the entire kingdom for his own. Adhesbal fled to Rome to ask for their intervention as a change in Numidian government would have to be cleared by the senate. It is unclear as to whether Jugurtha bribed the officials who arrived to deal with the dispute, Sallust seems to think so, but nevertheless the kingdom was split in two and Jugurtha received no worse punishment than the reportedly less fertile half.
The War
In 112 Jugurtha attacked again, this time capturing the capital of the eastern kingdom, Cirta, and killing Adhesbal within. Unfortunately, during the siege, several Italian merchants visiting the city were also killed. Popular anger in Rome meant the senate could not ignore this and war was declared on Jugurtha. The consul sent to destroy the king, Lucius Calpurnius Bestia, was unfortunately easy to bribe and in 111 a settlement was quickly reached with Jugurtha having to pay an official fine in silver to Rome.
Following this remarkable event, Jugurtha was called to Rome by Tribune of the Plebs Gaius Memmius, as an honoured guest now the war was over, to explain how this fortuitous treaty came about. Alas, another Plebian Tribune, Gaius Baebius, one of those who had bribed, used his power of veto to prevent Jugurtha from making a statement. The case was dropped and the aristocracy heaved a sigh of relief.
Jugurtha's Mistake
While in Rome Jugurtha heard of his cousin and rival to the throne, Massiva. To the extreme detriment to his reputation, Jugurtha had him killed by another Numidian. He had under-estimated the close scrutiny from the Plebians and their tribunes under which the nobility now sat. This time, not even his most loyal supporters could get him out of such a misguided action. The war was renewed and Jugurtha continued to elude capture or defeat by incompetent generals through either bribery or skilful military tactics.
Jugurtha's End
In 107, newly elected consul Gaius Marius took over from Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus after a couple of indecisive roman victories, appalled that Jugurtha had managed to defy Rome for so long. In 105, bored with waiting to beat Jugurtha by force, Marius sent quaestor Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix to King Bocchus I of Mauretania; Jugurtha’s father in law. Bocchus betrayed Jugurtha and the following year he was paraded through Rome in Marius’ triumph before being publicly executed.
Jugurtha’s ambitions and actions, or escapades in regard to their audacity, may not have been considered had Rome not been susceptible to bribery. That Jugurtha managed to continue or indeed stay alive for so long is humorous. It is generally concluded that Jugurtha had misjudged the dishonesty of the Roman nobles and had pushed his luck. The latter may be true but it could be proposed that had the social climate in Rome been different, Jugurtha may have been able to buy his way out of trouble once more. It is undeniable that Jugurtha had a sharper vision of Rome than most, his words encapsulating the city with chilling clarity; “A city for sale, and doomed soon to perish, once she finds a buyer!”
Sources:
Cicero, Selected Works, Penguin Classics 2004
Sallust, The Jugurthine War, Penguin Classices 1963
Micheal Crawford, The Roman Republic, Fontana 1978
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